RA Collections Decolonial Research: Sir Joshua Reynolds’ Pocket Books
Published on 10 February 2025
Since 2020 our team has been investigating the links between the RA and its colonial past.
Research into the Royal Academy of Arts and its Collection within the context of colonialism has continued since our initial survey of the founding and early Royal Academicians (1768-c.1850) undertaken between 2020-2022. The findings of this survey indicated that while the majority of the Academicians did not have direct connections to the enslavement of people or ownership of plantations, many nevertheless profited from their proceeds through patronage.
The rich holdings of the Academy’s Archive provided the opportunity to carry out the next stage of our research. Beginning with the first President of the Royal Academy – the portrait painter Sir Joshua Reynolds – this exercise focused on the artist’s patrons and sitters, looking at how they came to their wealth and position with particular regard to the economic systems of empire.
The RA Archive holds twenty-seven of Reynolds’ ‘pocket books’ in which he recorded portrait sittings and other appointments as well as lists and ‘apparently random jottings'. Reynolds’ pocket book of 1768 was selected from this group as a case study and we surveyed his appointments leading up to the establishment of the Royal Academy in December of that year. Guided by similar criteria used for the initial stage of the RA Collections Decolonial Research, for each entry in Reynolds’ pocket book we cross-checked the individuals’ connections to:
- enslavement of people or ownership of plantations where enslaved people worked
- beneficiaries of individuals who fulfilled either of the above criteria
- travels or periods of residency in British colonies
- involvement in debates over the abolition of slavery
- connections with either known imperialists or abolitionists
- immediate family members who were implicated or involved with any of the above
Sir Joshua is said to have had up to 150 sitters a year, as recorded for 1758. We identified over 94 sittings in the year 1768, including returning visits. As the RA Archive description for Reynolds’ pocket books cautions, however: ‘It is known… that the pocket books do not provide a record of all sittings, and one should avoid an over-literal interpretation of the evidence they provide.’ Many of the names written down were, or could have been, social visits rather than sittings. Regardless of the nature of each meeting, the diaries nevertheless provide an important insight into Reynolds’ daily life and the level of interaction with his substantial clientele.
The names in Reynolds’ pocket book for 1768 were cross-referenced with UCL’s Centre for the Study of the Legacies of British Slavery database and the Oxford Dictionary of National Biography and also checked against David Mannings’ Sir Joshua Reynolds: A Complete Catalogue of His Paintings in order to connect individual entries with existing portraits.
Many of the resulting portraits – now in various collections - were exhibited at the RA (either at the time or in later exhibitions) and many were reproduced as prints which are represented in the RA Collection. Furthermore, some of the sitters listed in Reynolds’ pocket books were also portrayed by other artists of the time and prints of some of these are also to be found at the RA. This gives us an opportunity to observe networks of patronage and further connections to colonial enterprise within the artistic communities of the time.
The findings of this survey have been compiled into spreadsheets (available upon request through library@royalacademy.org.uk) that identify whether the sitter had any connections to colonial enterprise, highlight those sitters that have been displayed at the RA and images of individuals that currently exist in the Royal Academy’s permanent collection. In addition, we extended this research to include objects belonging to Reynolds in the RA Collection which were an essential part of his daily life and the experience of sitters visiting his studio to have their portraits painted including his mahogany sitters’ chair and his tea caddy. Several of these have connections with colonial trade, reflecting the social context that Reynolds and his sitters inhabited.
Extended biographies of these sitters have been added to our database and website. Below is a selection of edited examples.
The following text contains language that may be upsetting and offensive. We have used the original wording to preserve its historical significance. We continuously work to improve the documentation and presentation of our Collections. If you have any comments or additional information about our online entries, please contact us at library@royalacademy.org.uk.
Lady Elizabeth Keppel (1739-1768)
This mezzotint reproduces Reynolds’ portrait depicting Lady Elizabeth Russell (née Keppel) Marchioness of Tavistock (1739-1768) adorning a statue of Hymen, the god of marriage ceremonies in Ancient Greek mythology. Russell is shown in the embroidered bridesmaid dress she wore at the wedding of King George III and Charlotte of Mecklenburg Strelitz in 1761. She is accompanied by a well-dressed Black attendant who is thought to have been one of her servants. The woman’s name and status are not recorded but Reynolds’ pocket book includes eight appointments with Lady Keppel. Shortly afterwards, two sittings are noted but in this case the sitter is referred to only by the word ‘negro’. The painting was exhibited at the Society of Artists in 1762.
Russell was the daughter of Sir William Anne van Keppel, 2nd Earl of Albemarle and Lady Anne Lennox. She married Francis Russell, Marquess of Tavistock in 1764. The latter died in 1767 after a fall from his horse and Elizabeth died a year later while visiting Portugal. All three of the couple’s sons were Whig politicians. Their second son John Russell, 6th Duke of Bedford (1766-1839), was MP for Tavistock and spoke against the abolition of slavery in Parliament.
Reynolds painted numerous portraits of the Keppel and Russell families. The portrait of Lady Keppel was commissioned by her brother George, 3rd Earl of Albemarle (1724-1772). At this time, he was a Lieutenant General in the British Army and the governor of Jersey. Shortly after the portrait was painted, he led the British forces at the Battle of Havana which resulted in Spain surrendering the city, one of the wealthiest ports in the Caribbean. The area was subsequently occupied by the British for a year during which time the plantation system was expanded, and large numbers of enslaved people were trafficked to the island. Albemarle was paid £122,697 in prize money for his part in the venture.
John Dunning, Lord Ashburton (1731-1783)
Lord Ashburton was a well-known lawyer and politician. In 1762 he wrote a notice defending the British East India Company: A Defence of the United Company of Merchants of England trading to the East Indies and their servants (particularly those of Bengal) against the Complaints of the Dutch East India Company; being a Memorial from the English East India Company to his Majesty on that subject.
In the 18th century, the English East India Company transformed into a sovereign state, following a period of turmoil and war that resulted in British control over Indian territories.
In his discussion of the East India Company, Dunning describes the young Nawab of Bengal, Siraj ud-Daulah (1733-1757) as a violent and unjust tyrant, ‘the oppressor’ of the English. Dunning’s document makes clear that in the various quarrels in India between the Dutch and the EEIC, the Nawab was used as a pawn.
Dunning was known for his speeches which were often critical of the British government, especially concerning its approach to the American colonies. In the high-profile Somerset v Stewart case of 1772, however, he was one of the defence lawyers arguing that enslavement was legally valid in England. James Somerset, an enslaved West African, had been brought to England from America by Charles Stewart, a merchant. Somerset left Stewart’s household in 1771 and refused to return, leading Stewart to have him kidnapped with the intention of selling him on to a plantation owner in Jamaica. Somerset won the case in a landmark ruling that paved the way for the abolition of slavery in Britain.
Sir Jeffery Amherst (1717-1797)
Amherst was a British Army officer who became Governor of both Virginia and Quebec and later Commander-in-Chief of the Forces.
Joining the army while still in his teens, Amherst served in the Seven Year’s War in Germany and later in North America where he was put in charge of British forces in 1758. He became infamous for promoting the use of biological warfare during Pontiac’s War (1763-1764). In order to end the siege of Fort Pitt by Indigenous Americans, Amherst suggested the use of smallpox- infested blankets as a weapon.
Correspondence between Amherst and Colonel Henry Bouquet, the commander of Fort Pitt, reveals the two men discussing the violent treatment of indigenous people, seemingly with amusement. Amherst faced criticism for his conduct on return to England but this did not seriously affect his career and he was subsequently promoted, eventually reaching the rank of Commander in Chief of the Forces in 1772. Reynolds’ portrait of Amherst, as reproduced in this mezzotint, presents him as an heroic figure, dressed in armour but lost in thought while his troops canoe in the background on their way to the siege of Montreal. Reynolds painted Amherst several times during the years following Pontiac’s War. Amherst’s wife, Elizabeth, daughter of General Cary, was also painted by Reynolds in 1767.
Due to Amherst’s controversial legacy, the city of Montreal recently renamed a street dedicated to him. However, there are still several locations across Canada and the United States named after him, including Amherst College, which holds the original painting for this print in its collection.
Edmund Burke (1729-1797)
Burke was born in Dublin and studied at Trinity College before moving to London in 1750 to study law. A philosopher and writer, he was also a statesman serving as a Whig MP between 1766-1794.
In Parliament, Burke regularly spoke critically on issues relating to Britain’s colonial activities. He advocated for liberty and free trade in India, France and America and described the Transatlantic slave trade as an ‘inhuman traffic’. However, his attitude towards enslavement has been described as ambivalent given that he favoured the approach of ‘gradual abolition’. This has been linked to the fact that he was MP for Bristol between 1774-1780 when the city’s wealth depended on enslavement and related commercial activities.
Burke was a supporter of Catholic emancipation and was known for his criticism of the East India Company. He famously led the prosecution against Warren Hastings, Governor General of the Bengal presidency, for ‘high crimes and misdemeanours’.
Burke was a close friend of Sir Joshua Reynolds and one of the executors of the artist’s will. He described Reynolds as ‘the first Englishman who added the praise of the elegant arts to the other glories of his country’. The two, along with Samuel Johnson and others, formed a literary dining society known as The Club which met in Soho at the Turk’s Head tavern.
Annabella, Lady Blake (1745-1818)
This print reproduces a portrait of Annabella, Lady Blake (1745-1818), as the goddess Juno receiving the ‘cestus’, from the goddess Venus. This was a magical belt made for Venus by Vulcan and imbued with the power to inspire passion and desire.
Annabella Blake was the daughter of the Reverend Sir William Bunbury, 5th Baronet and the sister of the caricaturist William Henry Bunbury. She married Sir Patrick Blake (c. 1742-1784) 1st Baronet and later MP for Sudbury in Suffolk in 1762. He inherited plantation holdings in the Caribbean from his grandfather Patrick Blake of St. Kitts and Monserrat (d. 1745). The latter bequeathed an enslaved woman to one of his beneficiaries as well as granting three enslaved children their freedom and funds to cover their schooling and maintenance up to the age of 15. Annabella and Patrick’s sons, Patrick and James, went on to inherit the family’s properties in the Caribbean.
Reynolds also painted Sir Patrick Blake and various members of the Bunbury family including Annabella’s sister-in-law Lady Sarah Bunbury and her nephew Henry Edward Bunbury who was Reynolds’ godson.
Warren Hastings (1732-1818)
Hastings sailed for Bengal in 1750 aged seventeen, having gained a junior position with the East India Company. Rising quickly through the ranks, he became instrumental in the company’s transformation from a trading organisation to a military and naval power.
In 1765 Hastings briefly resigned from the East India Company and returned to England for four years. His name appears at this time in Reynolds’ pocket book, almost certainly a record of the sittings for his portrait now in the National Portrait Gallery (NPG 4445).
By 1774, Hastings had been appointed Governor-General of the Bengal presidency with responsibility for supervising other British settlements in India. However, his power was tempered by a Supreme Council and its members began to challenge Hastings as bribery, extortion, and other abuses of power by the British began to be exposed. Meanwhile, multiple wars across India characterised Hasting’s tenure.
When Hastings left India in 1785, it was at peace, but his conduct raised concerns about the standards and methods of British rule. In 1786, the parliamentarian Edmund Burke began an impeachment process against Hastings. His trial lasted from 1788 to 1795, giving rise to public debate. Although Hastings was acquitted, Burke's speeches prompted re-evaluation of Britain's imperial policies.
Reynolds' sitters
The selected entries above highlight the varied connections and political positions of Reynolds’ sitters. In common with the survey of Royal Academicians carried out in 2020-2022, this exercise demonstrates the complexity of Georgian society in terms of involvement with and attitudes towards enslavement and colonial enterprise. Many of Reynolds’ aristocratic sitters benefitted directly from these activities and, like most portrait painters, he accepted commissions from patrons across the political spectrum. This is highlighted by the fact that he painted portraits of both Warren Hastings and his prosecutor Edmund Burke. Similarly, while Reynolds’ friendship group included critics of the British government and of enslavement, including James Beattie (see below), it also included figures like Augustus Keppel who was instrumental in the military expansion and defence of Britain’s empire. Furthermore, it has been shown that even prominent critics of enslavement sometimes demonstrated reticence towards full abolition, as was the case for Burke.
Reynolds' studio
Below are entries on two objects in the RA Collection that were owned by Reynolds and which would have been part of the experience of sitting to him or visiting his studio: his mahogany sitters chair and his tea caddy. Tea was a symbol of British colonial enterprise in Asia, while mahogany wood was harvested from the Caribbean and Central America, where colonial interests exploited the abundant natural resources. The presence of these items in the RA Collection highlights the complex legacies of colonialism, where luxury and exploitation were intricately linked, shaping both the material culture and social practices of the time.
Mahogany, leather upholstered. 1030 x 750 x 750 mm
Sir Joshua Reynolds’ Sitters Chair
This chair appears to have been part of a suite of furniture which begins to feature in the artist’s work in the 1760s. It has been proposed that it was made for the painting room which Reynolds added to his house in Leicester Fields (now Leicester Square). It is suggested that the architect and founding Royal Academician Sir William Chambers may have designed both the extension and the furniture.
The chair passed to Reynold’s niece, Mary Palmer, and her husband – by then Lord and Lady Inchiquin – who gave it to the artist James Barry in January 1794. Barry had been a protégé and rival of Sir Joshua’s. Dr Edward Fryer, Barry’s friend and biographer, then inherited the chair from him in 1806. Following Fryer’s death, it was auctioned and was eventually acquired by Sir Thomas Lawrence PRA (1769-1830).
The chair then passed into the ownership of successive Presidents of the Royal Academy until in 1879 it was presented to the Academy itself by Frederic, Lord Leighton PRA (1830-1896).
Mahogany was sourced from Caribbean islands using forced labour. European colonisers exploited the forests of these regions, leading to large-scale deforestation and the establishment of plantations that further relied on the labour of enslaved people. The trade in mahogany fuelled the economic interests of colonial powers. The material was used for luxury goods, becoming an indicator of high social status in Europe.
Tea Caddy belonging to Sir Joshua Reynolds
This tea caddy, once belonging to Reynolds, was presented to the Royal Academy by Sir Edward J. Poynter PRA (1836-1919) and a group of Academicians in 1898. A note inside the casket reads “Presented by the Late Sir Joshua Reynolds to His Sister Mrs Francis Reynolds by will with other Relics and family gifts. This set of Caddes [sic] were much prized by Sir Joshua, having been presented to him by his dear friend Doctor M. Beattie the celebrated Author of Essay on Trust.”
James Beattie (1735-1803), who is thought to have presented the caddy to Reynolds in 1768, was a philosopher at Marischal College, Aberdeen, and the author of An Essay on The Nature and Immutability of Truth In Opposition to Sophistry and Scepticism (1770) amongst other works. Beattie considered enslavement to be unlawful and unjustifiable, but it has been pointed out that his strongest statements against slavery were not published until the abolition movement was already well-established. The tea caddy is redolent of the daily rituals of Reynolds’ social life. While tea was imported from China in the 18th Century and British tea plantations in India were established in the 19th Century, the sugar would have come from plantations in the Caribbean during Reynolds’ time.
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